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This study examines the legal transformation of non-Muslim subjects in the Ottoman Empire from the Tanzimat Edict to the Treaty of Berlin (1839–1878). For centuries, the Empire governed its multi-religious society through the Islamic concept of dhimmi status. However, under the influence of 19th-century European modernization and nationalism, this structure underwent major reform. The Tanzimat and Islahat Edicts introduced legal equality, and the 1876 Constitution institutionalized the notion of constitutional citizenship. These reforms granted non-Muslims access to public office, property rights, and political representation. Nevertheless, reforms were often driven by external pressures rather than internal consensus and faced significant limitations in practice. The principle of equality was perceived differently by Muslim and non-Muslim communities and sometimes fueled social tensions. With the 1878 Treaty of Berlin, minority rights became subject to international oversight, placing non-Muslim communities under the protection
of European powers. This not only weakened Ottoman sovereignty but also deepened communal divisions. In conclusion, although the idea of equal citizenship in the Ottoman Empire marked a legal advancement, it failed to generate a lasting transformation at the societal and political levels. The transition from dhimmi to citizen was institutionally initiated but remained limited due to the lack of cultural and mental internalization.
